Assignment on Contemporary Western Theories and Film Studies
Name: Nirali Dabhi
Roll number: 13
Enrollment Number: 4069206420220006
Sem: 3 M.A
Paper number: 204
Paper Code: 22409
Paper Name: Contemporary Western Theories and Film Studies
Topic: Marxist Criticism
Submitted to: Smt S.B. Gardi, Department of English, M.K.B.U
Email: niralidabhi95@gmail.com
Literary criticism is a field of study that involves the analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literature. It seeks to understand the meaning and significance of literary works by examining various elements such as themes, characters, style, structure, and cultural context. Literary criticism goes beyond just identifying the components of a text; it aims to provide insights into the artistic, cultural, historical, or philosophical implications of a work.
Marxist theory, or Marxist criticism, constitutes a significant approach in literary analysis. Rooted in the ideologies of Karl Marx, a German philosopher critical of the inherent injustices within the 19th-century European class and the capitalist system, this theory provides a lens for interpreting literature. Marxist theory sees history as a continuous struggle between classes, dividing society into the oppressed (proletariat) and the oppressors (bourgeoisie). This perspective seeks to unravel the socio-economic dynamics reflected in literary works.
Marxism is a materialist philosophy, emphasizing the interpretation of the world based on the tangible, natural environment and societal structures. In direct opposition to idealist philosophies positing a separate spiritual realm influencing the material world, Marxism encourages a grounded analysis of concrete realities. One of Marxism's revolutionary aspects is its departure from preceding philosophies. It aims to reverse conventional thought by shifting away from idealism and redirecting focus toward the tangible world and societal structures. As Karl Marx asserted, "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the point is to change it." This underscores Marxism's transformative intent, distinguishing it from other philosophies that primarily sought to comprehend the world.
Marxist theory in literary criticism not only seeks to understand the socio-economic and political dimensions of literature but also aspires to effect societal change. It stands out for its commitment to actively shaping and improving the world rather than solely interpreting it.
What is Marxist Criticism?
- A research methodology and a form of textual analysis employed by literary critics to interpret texts.
- A specific genre of discourse utilized by literary critics to communicate the outcomes of their interpretive endeavors.
Key Terms: Dialectic; Hermeneutics; Semiotics; Text & Intertextuality; Tone
Another crucial concept employed by Marx was the dialectic, originally developed by the 18th-century German philosopher Hegel. Hegel, an idealist philosopher, used the term to describe the emergence of new ideas through the clash of opposing ones. He believed that the world is governed by thought, and material existence is the expression of an immaterial spiritual essence. However, Marx repurposed the concept to interpret the progression of the material world. According to Marx, Hegel had inverted the world by giving precedence to ideas, whereas Marx sought to reverse this emphasis. Thus, Marx's version of the dialectic is known as dialectical materialism.
Marx argued that all mental (ideological) systems are products of real social and economic existence. For instance, he contended that the legal system reflects the interests of the dominant class in specific historical periods, rather than being a manifestation of divine reason. Marxist dialectic is seen as the science of the general and abstract laws of development of nature, society, and thought. It views the universe as an integral whole in which things are interdependent, as opposed to a collection of isolated entities. Within this framework, all things contain internal dialectical contradictions, serving as the primary drivers of motion, change, and development in the world.
Dialectical materialism proved to be a powerful tool for Marxists, enabling them to uncover the underlying dynamics of social processes and anticipate their future development.
Marxism draws on concepts from the 19th-century writings of Karl Heinrich Marx, gaining significant traction in the 20th century. A fundamental premise of Marxist criticism is that literature can be regarded as ideological and analyzed through a Base/Superstructure model. Marx posited that the economic means of production in a society constitute its base, which in turn determines its superstructure. The superstructure encompasses human institutions and ideologies that give rise to art and literary texts. Thus, Marxist criticism underscores the influence of class, socioeconomic status, and power relations among different segments of society in the analysis of literature.
Classical Marxism: Basic Principles
According to Marxism, societal progress is propelled by the perpetual struggle between opposing forces, particularly classes. This struggle, known as class struggle, serves as the driving force behind social transformation. Throughout history, class struggle has been rooted in the exploitation of one class by another. In the feudal era, tension arose between feudal lords and peasants, while the industrial age saw a conflict between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the industrial working class (proletariat).
Marx posited that classes share common interests, and in a capitalist system, an inherent conflict exists between the proletariat and the capitalist class. This ongoing confrontation, as envisioned by Marx, is destined to culminate in the replacement of the capitalist system with socialism. The historical progression, according to classical Marxism, unfolds through these dialectical struggles, ultimately shaping the evolution of society.
Socialist Realism
Socialist Realism emerged as the sanctioned aesthetic principle in the nascent communist society, drawing its foundations from 19th-century aesthetics and the currents of revolutionary politics. Raymond Williams delineates three fundamental principles encapsulating Socialist Realism:
Partinost (Commitment to the Working Class Cause of the Party): Partinost, rooted in Vladimir Lenin's essay "Party Organisation and Party Literature" (1905), underscores the writer's unwavering dedication to the party's mission of emancipating the working class from exploitation. This principle aligns Socialist Realism with the political objectives of the communist party.
Narodnost (Popularity): Narodnost highlights the popular simplicity of artistic expression. Marx's reflections in the Paris Manuscripts on the alienation resulting from the division of mental and manual labor in capitalist society inform this principle. It aims to revive the qualities of folk art, emphasizing accessibility to the masses and seeking to restore a lost sense of wholeness.
Klassovost (Writer's Commitment to Class Interests): Klassovost signifies the writer's commitment to the interests of the working class. This principle goes beyond a writer's explicit allegiance to a specific class, emphasizing the writer's inherent ability to portray the ongoing social transformation and the evolving dynamics of class struggle. Socialist Realism, guided by these principles, seeks to integrate artistic expression with the political and social goals of the communist party. It emphasizes accessibility, simplicity, and a writer's commitment to portraying the interests and transformations of the working class while drawing inspiration from 19th-century aesthetics and revolutionary political ideals.
Here are some examples, As an illustration, Balzac, a staunch supporter of the Bourbon dynasty, presents a remarkably insightful depiction of French society, surpassing the insights offered by many historians. Similarly, Tolstoy, despite his aristocratic background and lack of direct involvement in Russian revolutionary movements, earned Lenin's designation as the "mirror of the Russian revolution." Lenin acknowledged Tolstoy's novels for effectively revealing the societal transformations in Russia that culminated in the revolution.
Lenin's stance on art and literature was more stringent compared to that of Marx and Friedrich Engels. He contended that literature should serve as an instrument of the party. This perspective solidified in the 1934 Congress of Soviet Writers, where Socialist Realism was formally adopted as the official aesthetic principle of the Soviet Union. This ideological stance became a dogma embraced by communists worldwide.
Developments in Marxist Aesthetics
Marxist criticism thrived beyond the official line in several European countries, witnessing notable developments. In the 1920s, Russian Formalism emerged as a novel perspective influenced by Marxism. Despite its dissolution by the Communist party for deviating from the official theoretical stance, key figures like Victor Shklovsky, Boris Tomashevsky, and Boris Eichenbaum contributed significantly. Their ideas were initially published in "Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays," edited by Lee T. Lemon and Marion J Reis. Although suppressed in the Soviet Union, Formalism found expression in the USA, Germany, and Prague. Mikhail Bakhtin, a Formalist member, remained in the Soviet Union, introducing the concept of Dialogism, emphasizing plurality and diversity as a counterargument to absolute authorial control.
As Formalists dispersed, some went into exile, marking the inception of a new form of Marxist criticism. Roman Jakobson co-founded the Prague Linguistic Circle, while in Germany, the Frankfurt School of Marxist aesthetics was established in 1923. Figures such as Walter Benjamin, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse associated with this school sought to blend aspects of Formalism with Marx and Freud's theories. Their groundbreaking studies delved into mass culture, communication, social reproduction, and domination.
Marxist scholars like Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht regarded art as a social production. Benjamin's essay, "The Author as Producer" (1934), explored the literary work's position within the relations of production, arguing for the revolutionary artist's role in developing and transforming artistic production forces. This collaboration between authors, readers, and spectators was crucial for the creation of new social relations.
Bertolt Brecht, a close associate of Benjamin, introduced Epic Theatre, challenging traditional naturalistic theatre. This form of theatre aimed to alter the functional dynamics between stage and audience, text and producer, and producer and actor. Brecht critiqued bourgeois theatre for its reliance on illusionism and passive audience consumption. His groundbreaking contribution was the alienation effect, which aimed to distance spectators from the performance, prompting them to question natural and unchanging attitudes. Brecht employed techniques like back projection, song choreography, and disruptive actions to stimulate critical thinking rather than providing escapist entertainment.
References
- Hasa. “How to Apply Marxist Theory to Literature: Marxist Theory, Marxist Literary Criticism.” Pediaa.Com, 27 Oct. 2016, https://pediaa.com/how-to-apply-marxist-theory-to-literature/.
- Hasa. “How to Write a Literary Criticism: Literary Theories, Steps to Follow, Tips.” Pediaa.Com, 4 Oct. 2016, https://pediaa.com/how-to-write-a-literary-criticism/.
- “Intro to Marxist Literary Theory.” The Nature of Writing, 2 Oct. 2021, https://natureofwriting.com/courses/writing-about-literature/lessons/marxist-literary-theory/.
- Mambrol, Nasrullah. “Marxism and Literary Theory.” Literary Theory and Criticism, 2 July 2020, https://literariness.org/2016/04/12/marxism-and-literary-theory/.
- “Marxist Criticism.” Writing Commons, 7 Nov. 2020, https://writingcommons.org/section/research/research-methods/textual-methods/literary-criticism/marxist-criticism/.
- “Study Material - English: R.D.S. College, Muzaffarpur, Bihar - 645.” Study Material - English | R.D.S. College, Muzaffarpur, Bihar - 645, https://rdscollege.ac.in/cc-pdf.php?ref=645&dept=English.
Word Count - 1797
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