Assignment on Indian perspective in Translation theory
Name: Nirali Dabhi
Roll number: 13
Enrollment Number: 4069206420220006
Sem: 4
Paper number: 208
Paper Code: 22415
Paper Name: Comparative Literature & Translation Studies
Topic: Indian perspective in Translation theory
Submitted to: Smt S.B. Gardi, Department of English, M.K.B.U
Email: niralidabhi95@gmail.com
Introduction
Translation, a fundamental aspect of human communication, serves as a bridge between languages and cultures, enabling the exchange of ideas, knowledge, and experiences across linguistic boundaries. Scholars such as Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett have contributed to defining and understanding translation, emphasizing its multifaceted nature encompassing linguistic, cultural, and semiotic dimensions. In the Indian context, translation takes on a broader significance, reflecting the country's rich cultural diversity and historical heritage. As we delve into the concept and history of translation in India, we uncover a complex tapestry of linguistic exchange, cultural transmission, and literary dissemination. This essay explores the evolution of translation in India, from its ancient roots to its contemporary manifestations, shedding light on the diverse practices, challenges, and contributions that characterize the Indian translation landscape.
Definition of Translation
Translation, as defined by scholars such as Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett, involves converting a source language text into the text of a target language while aiming to reproduce the closest natural equivalent of the source language message. This involves considerations of both meaning and style. Nida emphasizes the concept of equivalence, which refers to the challenge of finding suitable correspondences between source and target languages, considering both formal equivalence (linguistic similarity) and dynamic equivalence (functional similarity and readability). Meanwhile, Bassnett situates translation within the framework of semiotics, highlighting its connection to the study of sign systems, sign processes, and sign functions. In essence, translation encompasses linguistic activity as well as broader cultural and semiotic dimensions, reflecting the complexity of conveying meaning across languages and cultures.
Concept of Translation
In the Indian context, the concept of translation is often understood in a more expansive and inclusive manner compared to the Western perspective, which tends to approach translation in a more narrow and scientific way focused on literary communication. India's rich cultural and linguistic diversity encourages a multiplicity of thought regarding translation, recognizing its role not only in linguistic transfer but also in the transmission of cultural ideas and values.
With the rise of decolonization and post-colonial studies, there has been a growing demand for a more scientifically informed approach to translation in India. This reflects a recognition of the historical baggage associated with translation, including its use as a tool of colonial hegemony. Scholars like Jeremy Munday highlight Translation Studies as a burgeoning academic discipline that encompasses not only languages and linguistics but also communication studies, philosophy, and various cultural studies. The concept of translation in the Indian context embraces diversity, interdisciplinarity, and a nuanced understanding of linguistic and cultural differences. It acknowledges the transformative power of translation in shaping cultural exchange and fostering cross-cultural understanding.
History of Translation in India
The history of translation in India reflects the linguistic and cultural diversity of the country, which boasts 29 states and 22 languages spoken by its people. These languages can be broadly categorized into two main groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. Translation has played a significant role in India for centuries, with important works being translated into various languages to make them accessible to a wider audience. Some notable translations in Indian history include the following:
1784: Translation of the Bhagavad-Gita.
1789: Translation of Abhijnanasakuntalam.
1837: Publication of the Minute on Indian Education.
1861: Translation of Dinbandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan.
1877: Publication of the Slayer Slain.
In 1954, the Sahitya Akademi introduced the idea of working on Indian Literature, encompassing works from various religious traditions and written in multiple languages. This initiative aimed to promote literary exchange and appreciation across different cultural and linguistic communities within India.
Translators in India face the challenging task of accurately conveying the context and meaning of a text from one language to another. The translation process involves several stages, including understanding the source text, ensuring referential accuracy, maintaining cohesion, and ensuring naturalness in the target language. In 1988, the translation process was described as operating at different levels, including the source text level, referential level, cohesive level, and naturalness. Deconstruction methods are applied at each level to ensure grammatical accuracy, semantic coherence, and stylistic fidelity.
The post-colonial temper
The post-colonial period marked a significant shift in the landscape of translation in India. This era witnessed a reevaluation of the relationship between source and target texts, as well as a resurgence of interest in translation as a means of cultural exchange and literary dissemination. Tagore's translation of his own work, "Gitanjali," into English is considered a landmark moment in Indian literature, illustrating the importance of translation in reaching a broader audience. Similarly, Sir William Jones's translation efforts aimed to showcase India's ancient cultural heritage to the West, albeit through an orientalist lens.
Translation became increasingly popular in the post-independence period, with translators like P. Lal advocating for a new method called "transcreation," which allowed for creative liberty while maintaining fidelity to the source text. This approach was employed in translations of epics like "The Ramayana" and "The Mahabharata" by R. K. Narayan and Chakravarti Rajagopalchari, respectively.
The Indian government's establishment of the Sahitya Akademi in the 1980s signaled a commitment to the development and preservation of languages and literatures in India. Globalization further facilitated the exchange of literary works across languages and cultures, leading to an increase in translations and a focus on publishing and marketing translated works. Today, translation encompasses various areas such as literary, scientific, technical, and knowledge translation. Literary festivals and book fairs have contributed to the growing interest in translation, while initiatives like the Indian Literature Abroad (ILA) mission aim to promote Indian literature on the global stage.
In India, translation is not merely a linguistic or literary act but an integral part of everyday life, reflecting the country's multicultural and multilingual heritage. While Western theories of translation focus on linguistic and literary analysis, India's approach emphasizes the practical aspects of the translation process, rooted in the diverse socio-cultural context of the country.
Translation in India
In Hindi, the word "Anuvaad" is used to denote translation, derived from the Sanskrit term "Anuvaadeh," meaning repetition or explanatory repetition.
The process of translation involves several stages, including transliteration, transcreation, transfer, and restructuring. Transliteration, or literal translation, aims to reproduce the meanings of the source text in the target language, while transcreation grants the translator partial or complete freedom to recreate the source text in the target language, considering cultural nuances and reader reception. Transfer involves the transfer of analyzed material from the source text to the target text, while restructuring involves the rearrangement of transferred material to ensure coherence and effectiveness in the target language.
The practice of transcreation in India has a long and rich history, dating back to ancient times. The Chakyars and Katha vacaks, for example, interpreted ancient texts for their audience in a manner suitable to their tastes and temperaments. The term "transcreation" was first used in the context of translation theory by the poet and critic P. Lal, referring to his English translations of works like Shakuntala and Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. Transcreation involves an aesthetic re-interpretation of the original work, tailored to the readers of the target language and region. This may include expansions, explanations, interpolations, summarizations, and aesthetic innovations in style and techniques. Translators like Tulasidas in Hindi, Kambar in Tamil, and Ezhuthachan in Malayalam undertook transcreation with the aim of instilling a sense of devotion (bhakti) in the people by reaching out to them in their preferred language.
English translations also played a significant role in shaping perceptions and ideologies during the colonial period. Sir William Jones' translation of Manusmriti, for instance, projected it as the fountainhead of Hindu jurisprudence, aligning with colonial interests.
A. K. Ramanujan's translations of Classical Tamil poetry and vachanas emphasized the context-sensitive nature of Indian thinking, contrasting it with Euro-American context-free modes of thought.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's work reframed the role of the translator, emphasizing an active engagement with the text and its conditions of meaning. She highlighted the agency of the translator in freeing the play of meaning in a text, especially in the double contexts of gender and cultural identity.
Ganesh N. Devy's efforts to preserve oral cultures in written form reflect a commitment to preserving stories and histories. He notes that in civilizations like India, where the idea of rebirth is prevalent, every new version of epics like the Mahabharata or Ramayana is seen as equally sacred.
Tejaswini Niranjana's contributions to translation studies focus on the politics of translation and its role in colonial domination. She examines how translation was used socially, politically, and culturally to perpetuate colonial ideologies and create a people without history. Niranjana also explores the cultural aspects of translation, including the transference of customs, values, and ideas between cultures.
Transcreation in India encompasses a wide range of practices and ideologies, reflecting the diverse cultural, historical, and political contexts in which translation occurs. From ancient interpretive traditions to contemporary theoretical engagements, Indian translation theories continue to evolve and shape our understanding of language, culture, and power.
Conclusion
The examination of translation in India reveals a rich tapestry of cultural and linguistic diversity deeply intertwined with the country's history and heritage. From ancient interpretive traditions to contemporary theoretical frameworks, translation in India encompasses a wide range of practices and ideologies. It serves as a tool for cultural exchange, preservation, and negotiation, shaping perceptions, ideologies, and power dynamics. Emphasizing inclusivity, diversity, and nuanced understanding, translation in India reflects the complex interplay of languages, cultures, and histories. It remains a vital tool for building bridges, fostering understanding, and celebrating India's linguistic and cultural richness.
Works Cited
Choudhuri, Indra Nath. “Towards an Indian Theory of Translation.” Jstore, 2010, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23348221. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Israel, Hephzibah. “Translation in India: Multilingual practices and cultural histories of texts.” aylor & Francis Group, June 2021, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14781700.2021.1936149. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Jayasree, GS. “(PDF) History and Theories of Translation: India | G S Jayasree.” Academia.edu, 2013, https://www.academia.edu/43921022/History_and_Theories_of_Translation_India?auto=download. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Mathew, Teena, and Shiva Chaudhary. “A Perspective of Translation in India: History and Methods.” IJCRT.org, 8 August 2021, https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2108133.pdf. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Nagar, Anupam. “(PDF) The Concept of Translation in Indian and Western Traditions.” ResearchGate, 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334202857_The_Concept_of_Translation_in_Indian_and_Western_Traditions. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Silima, Nanda. “TRANSLATION AND CULTURE: THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND TRANSLATION STUDIES (.” International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies, 2017, http://www.ijelr.in/4.1.17a/337-341%20Dr.%20NANDA%20SILIMA.pdf. Accessed 24 April 2024.
Word Count:- 1798
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